STATISTICS

Statistics is a branch of science, which deals with the collection, presentation, analysis & interpretation of quantitative data.

A.   Branches of Statistics

1.)Descriptive Statistics. A method concerned with collecting, describing, and analyzing a set of data without drawing conclusions (inferences) about a large group.

2.)Inferential Statistics. A branch of statistics, concerned with the analysis of a subset of data leading to predictions or inferences about the entire set of data

 B.   Frequency Distribution. Is a tabular arrangement of data into appropriate categories showing the number of observations in each categories or group.

There are two major advantages:

(a) It encompasses the size of the table;

(b) It makes the data more interpretive.

C.   Parts of Frequency Table

1.)  Class limit- is the groupings of categories defined by the lower & upper limit.

2.)  Class Size (c.i) - is the width of each class interval.

3.) Class Boundaries- are the numbers used to separate each categories in the frequency distribution but without gaps created by the class limits.

4.)  Class Marks- are the midpoint of the lower & upper class limits.

Measure of Central Tendency

 There are three commonly used measures of central tendency. These are Mean, Median and Mode.

1 MEAN- it is the most commonly used measure of the center of data.

Mean for Grouped Data

Grouped Data- are the data or scores that are arranged in a frequency distribution.

 Frequency Distribution- is the arrangement of scores according to category of classes including the frequency.

Frequency- is the number of observations falling in a category.

Properties of the Mean

1.)  It measures stability.

2.)   The sum of each score’s distance from the mean is zero.

3.)   It is easily affected by the extreme scores.

4.)   It may not be an actual score in the distribution.

5.)   It can be applied to interval level of measurement.

6.)   It is very easy to compute.

When to use the Mean

1.)  Sampling stability is desired

2.)  Other measures are to be computed such as standard deviation, coefficient of variation and skewness.

2.Median- is the second type of measures of central tendency. Median is what divides the scores in the distribution into two equal parts. Fifty percent (50%) lies below the median value and 50% lies above the median value.

Median of Ungrouped Data

Determine the middle most score in a distribution if n is an add number and get the average of the two middle most scores if n is an even number.

Properties of the Median

1.    It may not be an actual observation in the data set.

2.    It can be applied in ordinal level.

3.    It is not affected by extreme values because median is a positional measure.

When to use the Median

1. The exact midpoint of the score distribution is desired.

2. There are extreme scores in the distribution.

3. Mode- third measure of central tendency

3 Classification of Mode

1. ·         Unimodal – distribution of scores that consist of only one mode.
2. ·         Bimodal- distribution of scores that consist of only two modes.
3. ·         Trimodal- distribution of scores that consist of three modes or multimodal is a distribution of score that consist of more than two modes.

Properties of the Modes

1.)  It can be used when the data are qualitative as well as quantitative.

2.)  It may not unique

3.)  It is not affected by extreme values.

4.)  It may not exist.

Quantiles- a score distribution where the scores are divided in different equal parts.

3 kinds of Quintiles

1.    Quartile- a score point that divides the score in the distribution into four equal parts.

2.    Decile- a score point that divides the score in the distribution into ten equal parts.

3.    Percentile- a score point that divides the score in the distribution into hundred equal parts

REFLECTION

                Statistic is an important tool in teaching. It gives you information on how effective you are in classroom teaching and how valid your tests are. Through statistics, you will know how many of your pupils got the high score.

                This will help the teacher to know if her pupils really understand their lessons or if she still needs to tackle or explain it further. It also validates if the teaching methods and techniques of a teacher is effective and has something to do with the performance of her pupils in class.

                With the help of statistics, teachers are able to see if how many percent of her students are struggling in her class.

ASSESSMENT IN AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

         Affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection.   

David Krathwol’s Taxonomy of Affective domain  

  

Affective Learning Competencies

                 Instructional Objectives – specific, measurable, short-term, observable student behaviors.

-   foundation upon which you can build lessons and assessments that you can prove to meet your over-all course or lesson goals.

-   ensures that learning is focused clearly enough that both students and teachers know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively measure. 

Quantitative terms used in affective domain

1.       Receiving             2. Responding   3. Valuing            4. Organization                  5. Characterization

Attitudes – a mental predisposition to act that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.

Values – generally refers to mental orientations towards concepts.

Affective components of attitude

1.       Cognitions. Statement of beliefs and expectations which vary from one individual to the next.

2.       Affect. Refers to feelings with respect to the focal object.

3.       Behavioral Intentions. Our goals, aspirations, and our expected responses to the attitude object.

4.       Evaluation. Central component of attitude.

Why study attitudes?

                Attitudes influence the way person acts and think in a social communities we belong. They can function as frameworks and references for forming conclusions and interpreting or acting for or against an individual, a concept or an idea. It influences behavior. People will behave in ways consistent with their attitudes.

Motivation – a reason or set of reasons for engaging in a particular behavior. The reasons include basic needs, object, goal, state of being, ideal that is desirable. Motivation also refers to initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior.

THEORIES IN MOTIVATION

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs theory is the most widely discussed theory of motivation.

 

Frederick Herzberg presents another need theory: the two factor theory, the “Motivation-Hygiene Theory”. It conclude that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, while others do not, but if absent lead to dissatisfaction.

 

Clayton Alderfer expanded Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. He formulated the ERG Theory (existence, relatedness and growth).

 

Why motivate students?

                -it can direct behavior toward particular goals;

                -lead to increase effort and energy;

                -increase initiation of, and persistence in activities;

                -enhance cognitive processing;

                -determine what consequences are reinforcing;

                -lead to improve performance.

2 KINDS OF MOTIVATION

Intrinsic motivation brings pleasure, or make people feel what they are learning is morally significant.

Extrinsic motivation which comes when a student compelled to do something because of factors external to him.

Ø  Self-efficacy- is an impression that one is capable of performing in a certain manner or attaining certain goals.

Self-Efficacy vs. Self-Esteem

o   Efficacy- relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal.

o   Esteem- relates to a person’s self-worth.

Development of Assessment Tools/Standard Assessment Tools

     Assessment tools in the affective domain are those which are used to assess attitudes, interest, motivations and self-efficacy. These include:

1. Self-report. Most commonly used, essentially requires an individual to provide an account of his attitude or feelings toward a concept or idea or people.

2. Rating Scales refers to a set of categories designed to elicit information about a quantitative attribute in social science.

3. Sematic Differential (SD) Scales tries to access an individual’s reaction to specific words, ideas or concepts in terms of ratings on bipolar scales defined with contrasting adjectives at each end

Good _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Bad

        3 2 10 1 2 3

(3- Extreme; 2- quite; 0- neutral)

4. Thurstone Scale- He developed an attitude continuum to determine the position of favorability on the issue.Thurstoneis considered as the father of attitude measurement and addressed the issue of how favorable an individual is with regard to a given issue.

5. Likert Scales- This requires an individual to tick on a box to report whether they “strongly agree”, “agree”, “undecided”, “disagree” or “strongly disagree” in response to a large number of items concerning attitude object or stimulus. Likert developed the method of summated ratings (or Likert scale) in 1932.

                   E.g. Statement: 

                             I do not like to solve algebraic equation      SD  D  A SA                                                                                                                                               1     2   3   4

                6. Checklists- are the most common and perhaps the easiest instrument in the affective domain. It consist of simple items that the student or teacher marks as “absent” or “present”.

REFLECTION

                Assessing the affective domain of your children will help you understand their behavior. Since their behavior is often affected by their attitude, you will know how to deal with them. This will also help you plan of what activities you should make in order for them to develop their values.

                Assessment of Affective Domain also guides you on what should be your learning objectives.

                Motivation is also important so that your pupils will pay attention on your class, encourage learning things, ideas, and developing skills, exert effort to achieve something and be a competent learner. As an educator, you should initiate and sustain motivation on them.

                You should also let your students evaluate themselves (likes and dislikes). This will be your guide on what techniques or methods of teaching you are going to use to enable them to learn your lessons even if they dislike it. Their evaluations might change based on your effectiveness in teaching. Even their behavior can be affected and change into positive one.